The dual Homeric Ithaca

Overview

Many attempts have been made since antiquity to identify Homeric Ithaca and the surrounding islands based on the descriptions found in the Odyssey, but still, no sufficiently convincing theory has been proposed.

We argue that the reason for this situation originates to the intentions of Homer himself!

Homer's dual narrative

In this story we argue that Homer deliberately sought to conceal the true location of the island of Ithaca and that as a vehicle to do so he deployed a dual narrative:

At a first reading (which would presumably targeted the vast majority of the audience) the interpretation would fit the version of Ithaca of the Ionian sea .
At a more careful second reading, which perhaps would be exercised by only small groups that did have the interest and knowledge to delve into the details, the true identity of the island, the Atlantic Ithaca would be revealed.

But, why Homer needed to do so?

In the search of Homer's Ithaca

The broader area of Ithaca’s location is narrowed down, based on the geographic information that can be derived from the descriptions of four trips to the island:

of Odysseus reaching Ithaca from Ogygia and Scheria
of Eumaeus, the trusted shepherd of Odysseus, coming from his home island, Syria, to Ithaca
of Agamemnon' trip to Ithaca (presumably from Peloponnese)
of Telemachus, Odysseus son, trip to and from Pylos and Sparta in mainland Greece

Odysseus return to Ithaca

Odysseus sails from Ogygia and after a period of 20 days in the seas where no land was visible on the horizon, he reaches Scheria, the island of the Phaeacians, who eventually take him to his home island, Ithaca.

The detailed analysis of this trip that is provided in another story , places Ithaca less than 24h sail from today's island of Flores in the Azores.

Given the mean and max speed of the Gulf Stream current the approximate min/max ranges of this trip are depicted on the map.

The island of Faial , the westernmost of the middle cluster of the Azores was, most probably the destination, Ithaca.

Eumaeus trip to Ithaca

Eumaeus, the trusted shepherd of Odysseus, came to Ithaca from an island called “Syria”:

“There is an isle called Syria, if haply thou hast heard thereof, above Ortygia, where are the turning-places of the sun“ [ Od. 15.403 ]

From these two verses, the broader area of his island can already be located: It is near the “turning places of the sun” (“τροπαὶ ἠελίοιο” in the original text) that is, where the sun “takes a turn”, presumably from the winter to the summer solstice and vice versa.

In other words, the island is somewhere close to the Tropic of Cancer (the term “Tropic” comes from the Greek word “τροπή”, meaning “turn”, so “τροπαὶ ἠελίοιο” in the ancient text essentially means the “Tropic”) which is located around the 23 o North parallel (depicted in orange).

Eumaeus home island

The islands around the globe that lie close to the Tropic of Cancer are the Canary Islands, the Caribbean Islands , the Hawaiian island cluster. and the island ot Taiwan .

Of these, the reference is most likely to the Canary Islands , so “Syria,” which is probably one of them, should be “above,” that is, to the north, of “Ortygia".

The Ortygia island

But where was Ortygia? The name of the island betrays its main feature: It was the island where the species of “ quail ”, “ὅρτυξ” in Greek (and thus the name “Ortygia”) once flourished.

In fact, on the island of La Gomera in the Canaries, the species Cotrunix gomerae was endemic and abundant, but today they have disappeared, most probably due to the cats that came to the island after its colonization.

Eumaeus home island

“It is not so very thickly settled, but it is a good land, rich in herds, rich in flocks, full of wine, abounding in wheat” [ Od. 15.405 ].

“In that isle are two cities, and all the land is divided between them, and over both ruled as king my father, Ctesius, son of Ormenus, a man like to the immortals” [ Od. 15.412 ]

The island “above Ortygia” that has these characteristics is today’s Isla de la Plama in the Canaries, which probably was the island that Eumaeus describes as Syria, his homeland.

Eumaeus story

Eumaeus' father was a ruler on the island of Syria , and had bought from pirates a Phoenician woman from Sidon to be his servant.

Some time later, Phoenician pirates arrived on the island. One of them began a relationship with the servant, and persuaded her to go back to Phoenicia with him. In exchange for her freedom, she agreed to help them steal the property of Eumeaus’ father.

For an entire year, the pirates –helped by the servant– gradually stole valuables from the lord's house. When the day of departure came, the servant, who had been charged with caring for the child Eumaeus, took him along as a “gift” to the pirates, to be sold in a slave market.

On the seventh day of their sail to Phoenicia, the servant died, and the pirates threw her into the sea, to be eaten by seals .

In the area of Madeira and the Azores in the 15 th century, the Mediterranean seals ( Monachus-monachus, which are carnivorous) were abundant and they were extensively hunted. Today, their population numbers a few dozen seals, and the species is under protection.

The presumed travel route of the pirates and minimum (inner circle) and mean (outer circle) travel ranges for the 7-day trip are depicted on the map. The estimations are based on the presumed capacities of bronze-age sea travel .

As the Canary islands and Madeira fall out of the minimum travel range, the Azores island cluster is almost exclusively the target destination.

The pirates continued their wandering in the sea, and at some point they arrived in Ithaca, where Laertes , Odysseus father bought Eumaeus. And thus, he became a slave under Laertes' command.

Thus, Eumaeus, story hints strongly to the Atlantic Ithaca rather than the Ionian Ithaca.

Agamemnon's trip to Ithaca

In Odyssey’s last Book (24), the soul of (dead) Agamemnon reminds the (dead) suitor Amfimedon , that he had met him in Ithaca when together with Μenelaus had reached the island to persuade Odysseus to join them in the Trojan war. In this dialogue, Agamemnon notes:

“A full month it took us to cross all the wide sea, for hardly could we win to our will Odysseus, the sacker of cities” [ Od. 24.118 ].

Thus, the return sea voyage from Ithaca to Sparta (the presumed destination of Menelaus) lasted for a whole month, that is, 30 days.

Given that the distance of Ithaca from Sparta is about 360km, this would mean that the ship would have to have travelled at a speed of just 500m per hour, which of course is not reasonable, especially at a time that they were in a hurry preparing for the Trojan war.

On the contrary, 30 days is a very reasonable length of time for a boat to sail about 4,800km, which is the distance between Sparta and the Atlantic Ithaca.

In this case, the average speed required to accomplish the journey within 30 days is 160km per day, a performance that was reasonable for the capabilities of bronze-age sea travel .

Telemachus trip to Pylos

Telemachus, travels from Ithaca to Pylos and then to Sparta to meet Nestor and Menelaus to ask about the fate of his father, Odysseus.

The description of this journey is masterfully (and deliberately) written by Homer, in a way that can be read in two ways:

at first reading the travel distance seems to be just one day
at second more elaborate reading the travel distance is 30 days, which corroborates Agamemnon's statement

These two readings convey contradictory information that cannot be true at the same time, and this has been the cause of scholarly controversy on a number of issues.

Trip to Pylos – first reading

Telemachus prepares for the trip to Pylos, securing a boat and supplies. In the evening, their ship sets sail [ Od 2.430-43 ], and the next morning they have reached Pylos [ Od 3.1 ].

This trip could be more or less feasible, given that the sail distance from Ithaca to Pylos is about 150km which falls within the daily range of a Bronze Age seacraft’s capacity .

After a quick visit to the king of Pylos Nestor, Telemachus heads to king Menelaus at Sparta, where he stays for a couple of days.

Then, the focus of the narrative shifts to Odysseus’ return trip to Ithaca (depicted in orange), while Telemachus remains in “the background” until Odysseus has returned to Ithaca.

This “inactivity” of Telemachus has puzzled scholars who came up with various possible explanations on where he was and what he could be doing during this period, but these considerations will be left out from this “first reading,” since these would probably not puzzle the vast majority of the epic’s audiences.

He's back in action at the beginning of Book 15, after a 5.000 verses-long pause.

Return to Ithaca – first reading

With the encouragement of Athena, who warns him that back in Ithaca the suitors are planning for his death, Telemachus returns to Pylos and together with his comrades start their return trip:

“So they fared past Crouni and Chalcis with its beautiful streams. Now the sun set and all the ways grew dark. And the ship drew near to Pheae, sped by the wind of Zeus, and on past goodly Elis, where the Epeans hold sway. From thence again he steered for the sharp isles pondering whether he should escape death or be taken”.

Telemachus return to Ithaca – first reading

In the verse which immediately follows the above, the scene changes; we move to the sheepfold of Eumaeus, where he and Odysseus (in disguise) are dining and chatting. Eumaeus recounts the long story of how he was brought to Ithaca . Their conversation lasts long into the night; eventually they fall asleep, and the new day dawns.

At that moment, Telemachus arrives at Ithaca, and, following Athena's instructions, he disembarks in another harbor so that he avoids the ambush of the suitors.

Thus, the narrative is consistent; the return journey takes about as long as the initial one: About a day.

Trip to Pylos – second reading

A detailed look at the sequence of events of Telemachus' journey from preparation for leaving to returning home, reveals the inconsistencies of the first reading and provides clues to alternative interpretation of the narrative.

Preparation for a long trip

To prepare for his journey to Pylos, Telemachus asks for [ Od 2.349 ]:

A boat with twenty men (i.e. twenty-one in total, including himself)
Supplies of wine: Twelve jars (“amphoras”) of wine, each having a capacity of about 47 liters, thus 564 liters of wine, or 27 liters for each one of them.
Supplies of flour: Twenty “measures” of flour. Since each measure had a capacity of about 39 liters, the total amount of flour was 780 liters, i.e. 37 liters for each one of them.
These quantities are normal for a one-month’s trip for a crew of 21 men (i.e. to one liter of wine per crew member, and a little more than that of flour for daily consumption), but they are unreasonably large for a one-day trip.

Return trip – inconsistent timing

In the beginning of Book 5, the 2 nd assembly of the Gods takes place, where Zeus commands Hermes to go to Ogygia, Calypso's island, and Athena to go to Sparta, to take care for the departure of Odysseus and Telemachus respecivelly, for Ithaca. While Hermes visits Calypso the same day, Athena visits Sparta after her conversation with Odysseus at the day that he reached Ithaca.

The timing of events, depicted in the diagram next, reveals a number of problems that have been noted by scholars (Zielinksy, Delebecque , Olson , Apthorp and others):

Athena neglects to execute Zeus’s order for about a month as opposed to Hermes, who rushed to Calypso’s island the same day.

There is a missing day in the narrative regarding Odysseus line of events, since he and Telamachus are supposed to have reached the Palace at the same day.

The information provided my Eumaeus to Penelope [ Od 17.515 ] about the “three days and three nights that he had hosted the stranger [Odysseus]” is not valid, since there are “four nights and four days” (depicted by purple lines).

An alternative interpretation

These problems are eliminated if we assume that both lines of events start at the same time, immediately after the 2 nd assembly of the Gods, with Athena and Hermes going immediatelly to Ogygia and Sparta respectively, to convey the will of the council.

That is, the day Telemachus begins his departure from Sparta coincides with the day Calypso announces to Odysseus that the gods's will is to leave Ogygia; and the next day (when Odysseus begins to construct his boat), Telemachus is returning to Pylos from Sparta and starting his return trip to Ithaca.

The two lines of actions are taking place simultaneously, but they are narrated sequentially.

Under this view, Telemachus's return trip to Atlantic Ithaca is 30-days long.

Return trip – spatial clues

The last locational clue given to us by the narrative is that the “ship drew near to Pheae”, while the route from there to Ithaca is left to be inferred by the reader.

In the “first reading”, Telemachus is inferred to have continued north to the Ionian Ithaca , but in the “second reading”, Telemachus most likely follows the path westward towards the “sharp isles”, that is, the volcanic rocky island cluster of the Atlantic Ithaca .

Telemachus trip to Pylos – second reading

If the return trip from Pylos was thirty (30) days, then the forward trip should also be the same.

The clues for the length of the forward trip are even more obscured...

Eurycleia's oath

Before his departure, Telemachus asks for his servant's Eurycleias' oath that she will not tell his mother about his trip to Pylos, before the 12 th day of his departure or if she proactively asks for him:

“But swear to tell naught of this to my dear mother until the eleventh or twelfth day shall come, or until she shall herself miss me and hear that I am gone” [ Od 2.372 ]

At the evening of the fourth day after Telemachus’ arrival at Pylos and after he has finished his talk with Menelaus at Sparta, the narrative goes back to Ithaca [ Od 4.625 ] where Noemon, one of the suitors, wonders when Telemachus is going to come back to return the ship that he had lend him to go to Pylos, as he now needs it. In effect, the suitors learn about Telemachus’ trip and so does his mother Penelope. At that point Eurycleia tells her that she knew about the fact but she could not speak as she was bound to her oath.

In the "first reading" these events take place at the 5 th day after Eurycleias' oath.

The timing of Eurycleia's confession

A closer look though to the precise wording of Eurycleias' confession that she knew about Telemachus trip to Pylos, implies that the dialogue took place after the 12 days had already passed since Telemachus’ departure, and thus the first condition of the oath was fulfilled so that she was now allowed to speak, and she did so as the second condition of the oath was met (Penelope was informed about the departure of Telemachus):

“ἐμεῦ δ᾽ ἕλετο μέγαν ὅρκον μὴ πρὶν σοὶ ἐρέειν, πρὶν δωδεκάτην γε γενέσθαι ἢ σ᾽ αὐτὴν ποθέσαι καὶ ἀφορμηθέντος ἀκοῦσαι” [ Od 4.746 ]

Specifically, the verse “μὴ πρὶν σοὶ ἐρέειν, πρὶν δωδεκάτην γε γενέσθαι” falls in the syntactic category of uses of “πρίν” with an infinitive , acting as a temporal determinant of the action described in the major sentence, while “γενέσθαι,” being an infinitive of the aorist, describes an already accomplished event (the passing of the 12 days). The translations of R. Merrill “not to inform you before some time had elapsed, on the twelfth day” and Fagles and R. Fagles "that I wouldn’t tell you, no, not till ten or a dozen days had passed”, are also using the past perfect tense to refer to an event that has occurred in the past (the passing of the 12 days).

Given that the four days of his stay at Pylos and Sparta are well documented in the narrative, the excess time (until the 12 th day, at least) should have been spent on the trip to Pylos. Thus, the trip should have taken at least eight days (and not just one), which is compatible with the 30 days of length in total.

Telemachus trip to Pylos – second reading

As for the duration of the journey that is implied in the last verse of the second Book:

“all night long and through the dawn the ship cleft her way” [ Od 2.434 ]

which, combined with the first four verses of the third Book, is interpreted as “by the dawn of the next day of their departure from Ithaca they reached Pylos”, it could equally well be interpreted as “the ship was traveling night and day” and at the dawn of some day (but not necessarily the next dawn), the ship arrived at Pylos.

Thus, the description of Telemachus trip from Ithaca to Pylos and back, hints to a long, 30-day trip.

The minimum and mean travel ranges are depicted on the map (inner, outer circles respectively), based on the capabilities of sea travel in the bronze-age .

Hints combined

Combining the information from the four trips to Ithaca...

Odysseus from Ogygia and Scheria (cyan)
Telemachus and Agamemnon to/from Pylos and Sparta respectively (white)
Eumaeus from Syria (purple)

...leads to a conclusive target regarding the placement of Ithaca and its surroundings: to the middle island cluster of the Azores.

At the same time, all the geographic clues support that Homeric Ithaca could not be located in the Ionian Sea.

The island cluster

The island cluster surrounding Ithaca, the main characteristics of each, and their interrelationships are described at various points in the epic.

The island cluster – Ithaca

Odysseus’s description to Alcinous places Ithaca to the westernmost of all the islands, all the rest being located to the east of it.

“Ithaca, bright in the sun, is my home;

thereon is the peak of Neriton, trembling with leaves, most eminent; numerous islands lie in the sea there around, each one of them close to another - they are Dulichium, Same, and also wooded Zacynthus. It [Ithaca] lies low in the sea and the furthest of all of the islands toward dusk-in the distance, the rest face dawn and the sunshine” [ Od 9.21 Translated by Rodney Merrill]

Faial , the westernmost island of the middle cluster of the Azores, perfectly fits this description.

The island cluster – Same

Ithaca is separated from Same by a strait, so the two islands are very close to each other:

“in the strait between Ithaca and rugged Same” [ Od 15.29 ]

The description matches perfectly with the strait between today's islands of Faial and Pico, which is named after the the volcano Mt. Pico located at its center; at an altitude of 2,350m, the volcano is the highest point in the Azores.

The name Same is reasonably justified since, as Dionysios the Periegetis says, in his work “Οίκουμένης Περιήγησις”, this name derives from the high mountains on the island, since “samos” means “height”, an etymology which also applies to the names of the Greek islands of Samos and Samothrace , both of which have high mountains.

The references to the island in the ancient text as “παιπαλόεσα” (“rugged”) [ Od 4.845 , 15.29 ] and “ἠπείριο μελαίνης” (“dark mainland”) [ Od 14.97] , fit perfectly with the geologic history of the island.

Pico is the most active volcano of the island cluster; over the past 7000 years, it has erupted periodically every 130 years on average, which makes it relatively safe to estimate that there have been a total of 54 eruptions in all.

The island cluster – Dulichium

The island with which Dulichium is presumed to be identified with, is today’s island of São George .

The name “Dulichium” perfectly describes the island's oblong shape since the Greek word “ δόλιχος ” means “oblong”

The island cluster – Zacynthus

The presumed modern island with which Zacynthus is identified, is Terceira .

In the Odyssey, the island is characterized as “ὑλήεσσα” that is, “wooded”. This description well corresponds to the lush flora on Terceira; in fact, the island hosts the largest endemic forests of laurel (also called laurisilva) in the archipelago.

The volcanic Ithaca

Faial, the presumed modern island with which Ithaca is identified, bears an intense activity of volcanic activity which is manifested by the great caldera located in the center of the island, a remnant of a volcano which was active in the distant past (470,000 years ago).

The volcanic nature of Ithaca is confirmed in various parts of the Odyssey.

Telemachus refused to accept horses as a gift from Menelaus, since Ithaca does not have suitable topography for grazing them: “In Ithaca there are no widespread courses nor aught of meadow-land. It is a pasture-land of goats and pleasanter than one that pastures horses.” [ Od 4.605 ]
Odysseus describes Ithaca to Alcinous: “a rugged isle, but a good nurse of young men” [ Od 9.27 ]
Laertes, the father of Odysseus, picks up “dark dust” (i.e. volcanic ash) from the ground and rubs it on his head in mourning: “and with both his hands he took the dark dust and strewed it over his grey head with ceaseless groaning” [ Od 24.316 ]

The “ὑπονήιος” Ithaca

Telemachus describes Ithaca to Nestor as:

“ἡμεῖς ἐξ Ἰθάκης ὑπονηίου εἰλήλουθμεν (we have come from Ithaca that is below Neion)” [ Od 3.81 ]

The term “ὑπονήιος”, which is translated as “under the promontory Νήιον” , is compatible with the prominent position of the volcano Pico, which stands directly opposite the presumed Ithaca.

Ithaca is “far away”

In at least five places in the epic, the droll comment: “Don’t tell me that you came to Ithaca on foot!” is made, suggesting that “this is not of course possible”:

“Who art thou among men, and from whence? Where is thy city, and where thy parents? On what manner of ship didst thou come, and how did sailors bring thee to Ithaca? Who did they declare themselves to be? For nowise, methinks, didst thou come hither on foot” [ Od 14.187 ]

Although Ithaca of the Ionian Sea is certainly also an island requiring a vessel to be visited, the wording used in excerpts like the above suggests that the trip to the Atlantic Ithaca required experienced seafarers.

Ithaca is “in the middle”

Goddess Athena refers to some basic features of Ithaca when Odysseus asks her where he is, so that he can confirm that he has actually returned to his homeland:

“Surely it is no wise so nameless, but full many know it, both all those who dwell toward the dawn and the sun, and all those that are behind toward the murky darkness” [ Od 13.240 ]

This reference, suggests that the island is somewhere “in the middle” of the east and the west, which matches the location of Faial on the mid-Atlantic ridge.

Notable landmarks of Ithaca

Having identified the broader area, a number of notable landmarks of the island can be matched with descriptions of the epic.

Phorcys harbour

Phorcys Harbor is the point where the Phaeacians left Odysseus on the coast.

“here is in the land of Ithaca a certain harbor of Phorcys, the old man of the sea, and at its mouth two projecting headlands sheer to seaward, but sloping down on the side toward the harbor. These keep back the great waves raised by heavy winds without, but within the benched ships lie unmoored when they have reached the point of anchorage” [ Od 13.96 ]

Based on the above description, Phorcys Harbor most probably refers to today’s Porto Pim Bay which, until the end of the 19 th century, was the main port of Horta, the island’s capital. The “two projecting headlands sheer to seaward, but sloping down on the side toward the harbor” are most probably those formed by the two characteristic calderas of the volcano cone Monte da Guia known as Baía das Caldeirinhas .

The caves of Phorcys harbour

The detailed narration of Phorcys Harbor is of particular interest:

“At the head of the harbor is a long-leafed olive tree, and near it a pleasant, shadowy cave sacred to the nymphs that are called Naiads. Therein are mixing bowls and jars of stone, and there too the bees store honey. And in the cave are long looms of stone, at which the nymphs weave webs of purple dye, a wonder to behold; and therein are also ever-flowing springs. Two doors there are to the cave one toward the North Wind, by which men go down, but that toward the South Wind is sacred, nor do men enter thereby; it is the way of the immortals” [ Od 13.102 ]

The “cave with the two entrances, one to the north and one to the south”, is probably the underwater cave complex around the volcanic cone of Monte da Guia. The description of the caves and their entrances as “καταιβαταὶ ἀνθρώποισιν” which is translated as “by which men go down”, is equally consistent with the interpretation that the entrance is below the water’s surface and can only be reached by diving, an interpretation that is also supported by the use of the verb “δῦνε” (sunk, plunged in), to describe how Athena entered the cave [ Od 13.366 ].

The caves of Phorcys harbour

This interpretation is reinforced by the special mention of the two entrances: The northern one for the “common mortals”, and the southern one through which “only the immortals” can pass. Homer’s description is very well suited to the physiography of the Monte da Guia underwater caves, which are popular diving destinations today.

Specifically, Gruta do Ilheu Negro is a huge cave with a sandy bottom and a maximum depth is 20m. A special feature of the diving is the play of light that one can observe by looking from the inside of the cave towards its entrance. In the cave there are colorful sea sponges and a multitude of shell-less molluscs, known as nudibranchs, which feed on them.

Gruta da Pedra is a spot of unique natural beauty, where huge boulders form a vertical wall and a cave with a 50m-long tunnel. The wall starts at a depth of 15m below the surface and meets the sea bottom at 40m. The actual entrance to the cave is at a depth of 20m below the sea surface and extends to a depth of 40m.

Thus, Ilheu Negro cave, located in the northern part, is relatively easy for divers to reach, as opposed to the Pedra cave, which being twice as deep, is visited only by experienced divers, i.e., Homer’s “immortals”!

In the light of the underwater nature of the caves, the rest of the narrative can be interpreted as follows:

The “stone looms” with which “nymphs weave” may be referring to the formations of the tall vertical walls created by the underwater boulders in the caves.
The “webs of purple dye” that “the nymphs weave” and which are “a wonder to behold” are probably references to the play of light in the caves.
The “mixing bowls and jars of stone”, may be a reference to the particular shape of the sponges that abound at the bottom of the area, which resemble bowls and jars. And most likely, this was the source of the “porous sponges” mentioned in [ Od 1.111 ] with which they were washing the tables in Odysseus’s palace.
The “bees that store honey” are likely to refer to the nudibranches , which are colorful shell-less molluscs, also known as “butterflies of the sea”. The nudibranches feed on sea sponges and are typically found on them.

Mount Neriton

Neriton is the first feature of the island of Ithaca that Odysseus reports to Alcinous when he reveals his true identity.

“But I dwell in clear-seen Ithaca, wherein is a mountain, Neriton, covered with waving forests, conspicuous from afar” [ Od 9.21 ]

Later on, Athena while talking to Odysseus, she refers to this mountain as one of the main features of the island, so that she persuades him that he is indeed on his homeland:

“and yonder is Mount Neriton, clothed with its forests” [ Od 13.351 ]

Mount Neriton is most likely the Cabeço Gordo (or Caldeira volcano ), which is located in the middle of the island of Faial. The volcano has a height of 1,043m, and its caldera is 2km in diameter and 400m depth.

The presence of the volcano dominates the island, thus matching the characterization as “ἀριπρεπές” (“conspicuous from afar”). In Odysseus' time the mountain was at least 300m taller. It was reduced during an eruption about 1.000 years before present.

Eumaeus sheepfold

Eumeaus’s sheepfold is located at the “rock of Corax”, a name that most likely suggests it had a black color since “Corax” (“Κόραξ”) is the Greek name for “Crow”, and is commonly used to denote the black color.

“Thou wilt find him abiding by the swine, and they are feeding by the rock of Corax and the spring Arethusa, eating acorns to their heart's content and drinking the black water, things which cause the rich flesh of swine to wax fat” [ Od 13.407 ].

Eumaeus sheepfold

“But Odysseus went forth from the harbor by the rough path up over the woodland and through the heights to the place where Athena had shewed him that he should find the goodly swineherd, who cared for his substance above all the slaves that goodly Odysseus had gotten. He found him sitting in the fore-hall of his house, where his court was built high in a place of wide outlook, a great and goodly court with an open space around it” [ Od 14.1 ].

The Rock of Corax, located in the heights at a place of wide outlook, near the water spring Arethousa, was perhaps at today's Pico das Queimadas, a volcanic formation at the source of rivers Sao Pedro and Fontainhas.

Although the term Queimadas means “burnt, scorthced”, which also denote “black”, the similarity with the meaning of the “rock of Corax” is probably coincidental.

The point where Eumaeus describes to the “stranger” (Odysseus in disguise) the vastness of Odysseus' property, is of particular interest:

“Verily his substance was great past telling, so much has no lord either on the dark mainland or in Ithaca itself” [ Od 14.96 ]

The two men are standing in the sheepfold on Eumaeus’ looking across the sea at the nearby island of Same, with Mt. Neion and its black, volcanic landscape dominating the view.

The term “ἠπείροιο μελαίνης” in the original text, which is translated as “dark mainland”, should be Same, as “ἠπείρος”, means “land”. The tendency to translate it as “mainland”, originates to the fact that the Ionian Ithaca is regarded as the reference location, which is opposite to mainland Greece (at a distance of more than 30km).

The harbor of Rheithron

During her conversation with Telemachus, Athena (in disguise), describes the harbor of Rheithron as being near the city, but outside of it:

“My ship lies yonder beside the fields away from the city, in the harbor of Rheithron, under woody Neion” [ Od 1.185]

Another description is provided upon the return of Telemachus's comrades from Pylos (the harbor is not named, but most likely is Rheithron):

“and they, when they had come into the deep harbor, drew the black ship up on the shore” [ Od 16.324 ]

Therefore the Harbor of Rheithron is “beside the fields”, “under Neion” and is described as “πολυβενθές”, that is, deep. Etymologically, the word “ρείθρο” (rheithron) means “river bed”.

Based on these, the most likely location of Rheithron is at the estuary of the river Flamengos (depicted in blue). The cove located at the mouth of the river makes it possible for the sea to penetrate well into the estuary. Most likely, it is length of the sea’s intrusion into the river meant by “πολυβενθές” (depth), rather than the depth of the sea at that point.

An old map of the city of Horta, depicting the Flamengos river, labels the estuary as a lagoon, supporting the above interpretation.

Rheithron under Neion

From a visual perspective, the harbor lies “under the mountain of Neion” on the island of Pico (the Homeric Same) located directly opposite.

The Palace

The Homeric descriptions provide interesting details which hint to the placement of Odysseus' Palace.

The Palace – hint #1

From the palace, one could have visual contact with the port of Rheithron:

“But the wooers were dismayed and downcast in spirit, and forth they went from the hall past the great wall of the court, and there before the gates they sat down...

...Not yet was the word fully uttered when Amphinomus, turning in his place, saw a ship in the deep harbor and men furling the sail, and with oars in their hands.” [ Od 16.342 ]

Geographic field-of-view analysis, reveals the regions (depicted in red) that have a direct visual contact with a ship entering the harbor of Rheithron.

The Palace – hint #2

The Palace is in close proximity to the city of Ithaca, as is implied in the following:

Telemachus exits the Palace to go to the place of the assembly in the city [ Od 17.61 ] and reaches there after a few verses, that is, very quickly.
At the beginning of the killing of the suitors, one of them, Eurymachus, urges: “let us all have at him in a body, in the hope that we may thrust him from the threshold and the doorway [of the Palace], and go throughout the city” [ Od 22.76 ].
After a quarrel in front of the Palace between Odysseus and the people of Ithaca, “they turned toward the city, eager to save their lives” [ Od 24.536 ].

The Palace – hint #3

Just after Eumaeus leaves the Palace to return to his sheepfold, he passes from the hill of Hermes which lies above the city, and at that point, notices the ship of suitors entering the harbor of Reithron:

“And this further thing I know, for I saw it with my eyes. I was now above the city, as I went on my way, where the hill of Hermes is, when I saw a swift ship putting into our harbor, and there were many men in her, and she was laden with shields and double-pointed spears” [ Od 16.470 ]

That is, Eumaeus' viewpoint, at a hill close to the Palace and above the city, lies within the regions with visual contact to the entrance of Reithron (depicted in red).

The Palace – more hints

Two more hints that come to aid our analysis, are the following:

The courtyard in front of the Palace should allow enough space of at least 50-60m long, for the suitors' game-play: “But the wooers in front of the palace of Odysseus were making merry, throwing the discus and the javelin in a levelled place” [ Od 4.625 ]
There is a plateau in front of the city where the people of Ithaca gathered in arms to fight against Odysseus [ Od 12.468 ].

The Palace

Based on these hints, there are three likely options for the placement of the Palace, that meet all the implied spatial conditions, which we'll examine next.

As for the presumed plan of the Palace, the one proposed in this study is used.

The Palace – option #1

The first option is depicted here, with the presumed locations of the Palace and the city of Ithaca below it, and the two lines-of-site to the harbor entrance, one from the Palace and the other from the presumed hill of Hermes.

The cons of this option is that the city is placed quite close, if not within, the harbor while the description in the epic implies a longer distance.

The Palace – option #2

The second option is depicted here, again with the presumed locations of the Palace and the city of Ithaca below it, and the two lines-of-site to the harbor entrance, one from the Palace and the other from the presumed hill of Hermes.

The cons of this option is that Eumaeus would have no reason to climb the steep hill above the city, but would rather by-pass it on his return route.

The Palace – option #3

The third option which is depicted here, is the most probable one.

The prons of this option are that the city, which is laid along the Flamengos river, is at a fair distance from the harbor, while the presumed hill of Hermes is well suited along the presumed Eumaeus return route .

From the sheepfold to the Palace

Following Telemachus command, Eumaeus takes Odysseus from the sheepfold to the Palace. On their way they pass by the fountain which was the water source for local residents:

“But when, as they went along the rugged path, they were near the city, and had come to a well-wrought, fair-flowing fountain, wherefrom the townsfolk drew water –this Ithacus had made, and Neritus, and Polyctor, and around was a grove of poplars, that grow by the waters, circling it on all sides, and down the cold water flowed from the rock above, and on the top was built an altar to the nymphs where all passers by made offerings” [ Od 17.204 ].

The description matches perfectly to the waterfall of the Flamengos river located halfway of the presumed route to the Palace (depicted in yellow).

The rocky island Asteris

The suitors plan to ambush Telemachus on Asteris, a rocky island lying in the strait between Ithaca and Same.

“But come, give me a swift ship and twenty men, that I may watch in ambush for him as he passes in the strait between Ithaca and rugged Samos” [ Od 4.669 ]

“But the wooers embarked, and sailed over the watery ways, pondering in their hearts utter murder for Telemachus. There is a rocky isle in the midst of the sea, midway between Ithaca and rugged Samos, Asteris, of no great size, but therein is a harbor where ships may lie, with an entrance on either side” [ Od 4.842 ]

Asteris was most likely today's rock island Madalena Ihla do Pico .

Due to erosion, the rocky island has been broken down over time into two segments.

Today, Madalena Ihla do Pico (Asteris) is closer to the coast of Pico island (Same) than it was in the Homeric period.

Based on the periodic volcanic eruptions of Mt. Pico (over the past 7000 years, it has erupted periodically every 130 years on average), combined with the type of volcano it is (a stratovolcano ), we can make a rough model of the way that lava spread around the crater. According to the calculations, the shoreline of Pico Island in the time of Homer (depicted in red) is estimated to have been at least 2km inland of the current coastline, so that Asteris would have been almost halfway between the two islands in that era.

As for the name of the island, it could perhaps be linked to its avian inhabitants: Asterias (the “starlike”, in Greek) was the name for a type of hawk which is identified with the Goshawk . On the other hand, the name of the whole island cluster, Azores, derives from the Portuguese word “Açores” that denotes the Goshawk and was given by the Portuguese sailors who named the islands after this bird which they found in great numbers.

Today the symbol of Goshawk appears prominently in the regional flag of the Azores .

The recurring references to hawks in the Odyssey in relation to the island cluster (e.g. in Od.15.525 and in 13.8 , implied reference in 17.16 ) support the above hypothesis.

Epilogue

We have argued that Homer in his narrative is referring to two islands named Ithaca at the same time. By doing so he transfers in a masterful way, a message with two readings for the location of the island, whose interpretation is left to the recipient audiences.

As to why Homer had to engage in an “encoded double narration” resulting in ambiguous and perhaps even misleading readings, a potential explanation is provided in yet another story of this series.